Despite being located in economically poor neighborhoods and communities, some schools do exceptionally  well in educating students. It is important to know why these schools succeed while similar schools in equally stressful environments do not. The primary goal of this study is to investigate whether there are significant differences between effective and  ineffective urban schools based on (a) students' classroom behavior and (b) students' motivation and perceptions of their classroom lear ning environment. This approach is important because it focuses on the predictors of academic success rather than academic failure.

This study was conducted in a large urban school district in a major metropolitan U.S. city. Schools serving predominantly African-American students were classified as effective and ineffective based on the state rating system for rewarding schools and improving performance. Effective schools included schools that made exemplary progress in improving students' academic achievement and where students were achieving at acceptable levels. Students from four effective and four ineffective elementary school s selected at random were systematically observed during the school year using the Classroom Observation Schedule. About 6 weeks before the end of the school year, 914 students completed three surveys on student motivation and classroom and instructional learning environments-the Multidimensional Motivation Instrument, the Classroom Environment Scale, and the Instructional Learning Environment Questionnaire.

HIGHLIGHTS OF FINDINGS

Student Observation Results. In effective schools, the predominant setting or context observed was whole-class instruction (80%), followed by individualized or independent work (14%), and small-group instruction (6%). In these settings, students were observed working independently about 37% of the time. They interacted with their teacher about 60% of the time and with others (e.g., students) about 3% of the time. The most often observed student activity was watching or listening (54%), followed by working on written assignments (21%), and interacting (5%). Students were observed being on task about 93% of the time.

In the ineffective schools, the predominant setting or context observed was whole-class instruction (86%), followed by individualized or independent work (9%), and small-group instruction (5%). In these settings, students were observed working independ ently about 61% of the time. They interacted with their teacher about 31% of the time and with others about 5% of the time. The most often observed student activity was watching or listening (54%), followed by working on written assignments (16%), and int eracting (6%). Students were observed being on task about 92% of the time. In both school types, nearly all the activities (99%) the students were observed to be engaged in were teacher-assigned activities.

The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) results revealed a significant multivariate effect for type of school (i.e., effective vs. ineffective) on the setting, interaction, and type of activities section of the Classroom Observation Schedule. Fo llow-up univariate tests revealed significant differences between effective and ineffective schools on the variables of whole-class setting, individual setting, no interaction, interaction with teacher, interaction with others, working on written assignme nts, reading, working with manipulative materials, and other activities.

Students from the effective schools were observed more frequently (a) working in an individualized setting, (b) interacting with their teachers, and (c) working on written assignments. Students from the ineffective schools were observed in (a) whole-cl assroom settings, (b) not interacting, (c) interacting with others, (d) reading, and (e) working with manipulative materials significantly more than students from the effective schools.

Student Survey Results. All students had above-average perceptions of their classroom environment and above-average motivation. The scales with the highest means for students in effective schools were Student Aspirations, Academic Self-Concept, Rule Clarity, and Achievement Motivation. The scales with the lowest mean values were Order and Organization, Teacher Support, and Social Self-Concept.

MANOVA was used to examine if there were significant differences in students' perceptions by type of school (i.e., effective vs. ineffective). The MANOVA results revealed an overall significant multivariate effect attributable to the differences betwee n the two types of schools. As a follow-up procedure, the researchers used univariate analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to determine if the overall difference between schools existed for each scale. The results revealed significant differences between effecti ve and ineffective schools on the scales of Achievement Motivation, Academic Self-Concept, Task Orientation, Rule Clarity, and Student Aspirations.

The scales with the highest means for students in ineffective schools were Student Aspirations, Academic Self-Concept, and Rule Clarity. The scales with the lowest mean values were Order and Organization, Social Self-Concept, Teacher Support, and Task Orientation. The six variables found not to significantly differ between the two groups were Social Self-Concept, Involvement, Affiliation, Teacher Support, Order and Organization, and Satisfaction.

The results for the motivation survey instrument revealed that students from the effective schools reported significantly higher Achievement Motivation and Academic Self-Concept scores than students from the ineffective schools. Results from the classr oom environment scale indicated that students in the effective schools perceived their classroom environment differently from students in the ineffective schools in two key areas-they had significantly higher perceptions of Task Orientation and Rule Clarity. The results from the learning environment questionnaire indicated that students from the effective schools had significantly higher Aspirations than students from the ineffective schools.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings from this study reveal that students from effective schools for African Americans were more motivated, had higher Aspirations, and perceived more Task Orientation and Rule Clarity than students from ineffective schools. Students in effecti ve schools were also working significantly more on written assignments and in individualized settings than students from ineffective schools. Furthermore, students from effective schools were found interacting with their teacher nearly twice as much as st udents from the ineffective schools. These findings are both statistically and educationally significant.

Given the magnitude of the social problems facing many African-American students in urban schools, improving the quality of classroom instruction and classroom learning environment may appear to be only a small step toward correcting the serious proble ms facing students. Exemplary classroom instructional and learning environments, however, can increase students' self-esteem and academic achievement and reduce their alienation and boredom. Furthermore, schools can become "islands of tranquility" in the lives of students. They can provide students with quality adult-student relationships and supportive environments that minimize students' fears and promote a sense of belonging.

Urban schools have the opportunity to provide these kinds of environments for all their students. Rather than reinforcing the negative experiences of failure, schools have the opportunity to help develop students' tolerance, sense of belonging, self-di rectedness, teamwork, cooperative learning, commitment, attitudes toward learning, participation, and engagement.

For a complete copy of this research report, contact the LSS Information Services Coordinator at 1-800-892-5550, or access the LSS website at http://www.temple.edu/LSS.