Encouraging parent involvement in children's education seems as American as apple pie. There is widespread support for the National Education Goals Panel's objective that states: "By the year 2000, every school will promote partnerships that will increase parental involvement and participation promoting the social, emotional, and academic growth of children." But the reality is that more parent-teacher contact by itself is not necessarily better for children. Our research indicates that it is the quality of parent-teacher relationships, and not the quantity of contacts, that relates to improved student achievement and behavior. 

Parents may participate in their children's education in diverse ways. Over the years, several researchers have come up with different types of parent involvement. For example, Joyce Epstein identified the following six types: (a) establishing home environments that foster adaptive child development and school readiness (Parenting); (b) engaging in constructive two-way, home-school communication about school programs and student progress (Communicating); (c) working on classroom and school efforts to assist teachers, administrators, students, and other parents (Volunteering); (d) helping children at home with homework and other curriculum-related activities, decisions, and planning (Learning at Home); (e) serving on district-level committees, school advisory councils, or the Parent-Teacher Association/Parent-Teacher Organization to represent parent perspectives in planning (Decision Making); and (f) identifying and integrating community resources and services to enhance school programs, family practices, and student performance (Collaborating with Community). 

Furthermore, parents and teachers have different attitudes and skill levels regarding the implementation of school-family partnership (SFP) practices. We have identified four broad categories each of parent skills and attitudes, and of teacher skills and attitudes toward parent involvement. Our parent typology includes: (a) parents who have positive attitudes toward, and the necessary skills for, active and constructive involvement in their children's education; (b) parents who want to help their children succeed in school, but who require some guidance and encouragement to participate effectively in their children's education; (c) parents who want to help their children, but lack some basic skills necessary for their involvement in school-family partnerships (e.g., literacy skills); and (d) parents who face serious personal problems (e.g., substance abuse) which impede their effective participation in their children's education. 

Following the dimensions of attitudes and skills necessary for the successful implementation of SFP programming, we also developed an SFP typology for teachers: (a) teachers who have a strong interest and the necessary skills to establish and maintain SFP; (b) teachers who have an interest in SFP, but require training, encouragement, and support in order to involve parents effectively; (c) teachers who are skeptical about the benefits of SFP, or their ability to engage parents successfully, but with significant training and support may view SFP more positively and implement SFP programming effectively; and (d) teachers who are ineffective and highly stressed and cannot take on additional SFP responsibilities. 

These kinds of categorizations assist educators and researchers alike to better understand and measure the different forms of parent involvement, and can serve as effective guides for assessment, an important step toward targeting areas where intervention is needed. School and teacher practices have also been shown to be instrumental in influencing parent participation, with teacher outreach to parents playing an essential role in influencing parent perceptions positively and motivating parents to be more actively involved in their children's education. Once parent and teacher perceptions of and practices regarding school-family partnerships have been established, the phase of program development and implementation commences. This phase requires time and a systemic approach to laying the foundation, maintaining the momentum, and conducting a year-end review. The core of our SFP programming involves three intervention types: (a) two-way, home-school communication; (b) parent-teacher conferences; and (c) family involvement in children's learning at home and school. Our applications of the five P's philosophy has allowed us to maintain our vision of true and effective partnerships and develop strategies and tools to involve parents in a meaningful way. 

Partnership as a Priority  

Parents and teachers have multiple demands on their time, so each school needs to define for itself how important a partnership with parents is, consider the benefits, and prioritize interventions that target it. Showing an interest for what parents think and how they can be involved in the educational process conveys the important message that they are considered partners in a joint effort of better educating children. There are many ways that teachers can elicit parental response, such as encouraging parents to respond to notes by leaving space for comments or including a few questions. In this way, parents feel appreciated and express higher  levels of satisfaction and involvement. 

Proactive, Regular, and Persistent Communication  

In order for parents to be involved in a meaningful way, they should be kept informed regularly about class rules, expectations, and current activities. Letting parents know about classroom routines, such as quizzes, involves parents in the educational process and provides them with a structured opportunity to be involved in their child's education. Home-school communications can become even more effective if parents and teachers communicate with each other the best ways they can be reached (phone calls, notes, home-school journals, etc.). This minimizes the frustration of parents and teachers not being able to contact each other and, most importantly, allows messages to be communicated between home and school. Using follow-up communications maintains that flow of information; teachers who start sending home notes regularly notice that parents are more responsive to and appreciative of their efforts.

Positive

It is important to let parents know about the positive things their child is doing in the classroom so that communication from school is not labeled as "bad news." This indicates to parents that the teacher sees the whole child, and does not merely focus on areas of weakness. Parents are usually thrilled to receive good news about their children, and are then more responsive and willing to listen to teacher comments and suggestions. The dissemination of positive news fosters constructive discussion not only between parents and teachers, but also between parents and children. It is important to note that positive communication is a two-way street; by offering positive comments to teachers, parents recognize and reinforce the teachers' efforts. 

Personalized

Providing schoolwide newsletters or notes serves the important function of keeping parents in touch with school activities and events, but what draws parents' attention is specific information about their own child. By providing parents with concrete examples of the child's strengths and weaknesses, teachers achieve higher levels of collaboration with parents,  maximizing benefits for the child's performance.  Establishing and maintaining personalized communications may involve a variety of techniques, from keeping a home-school journal where parents and teachers inform each other about the child's achievement and concerns, to jotting a quick personalized note. Parent-teacher conferences or "report-card pickup days" offer great opportunities for parents and teachers to share specific information about the child.

Practical, Specific Suggestions 

A very important part of school-family partnerships is the extension of the learning environment from the classroom to the home and beyond. Teachers can facilitate this process by offering parents specific suggestions on how they can further assist their child's education. This will show parents how to help their children in a structured way. Simple suggestions such as counting the plates, forks, etc. while setting the dinner table can help parents reinforce what their child learned at school. In this way, knowledge is generalized to various environments and, through its multiple use, children can be more confident about their schoolwork.

CONCLUSION

The Partnerships publication series offers practical tips for fostering parent-teacher relationships. To order, contact the Laboratory for Student Success at 800-892-5550 or check the LSS website at http://www.temple.edu/LSS.