Changes in education should be grounded in a knowledge base derived from research; such a base is now emerging. By analyzing the content of 179 handbook chapters and reviews, compiling 91 research syntheses, and surveying 61 educational researchers, the authors of this study compiled a knowledge base comprised of 11,000 statistical findings that shows consensus on the most significant influences on student learning. 

The results of the research analysis were summarized using a 28-category conceptual framework based on models of schooling that posited influences on learning. To better understand which influences were most important, the 28 categories were grouped into six broad types of influences: student characteristics; classroom instruction and climate; home, peer, and community context; program design; school organization; and state and district characteristics. The 28 categories of the conceptual framework are listed in this Spotlight, along with a representative variable for each category. 

By combining the results from the content analysis, the research synthesis, and the survey of experts, an average score was obtained for each of the 28 categories. This score represents the degree of influence of each category.

In general, direct influences were found to have a greater impact on learning than indirect influences. Direct influences, for example, include the amount of time a teacher spends on a topic and the quality of the social interactions teachers have with their students. Examples of indirect influences include policies adopted by a school, district, or state and organizational features such as site-based management. 

The estimates obtained on the effectiveness of various educational strategies for improving student learning provide a set of considerations for formulating educational policies and practices as well as a way to identify school improvement priorities. Overall, findings show renewed emphasis on psychological, instructional, and contextual influences. 

Paradoxically, the state, district, and school policies that have received the most attention in recent years appear to have the least influence on learning. Because indirect influences may only affect direct influences, they appear to be weaker and less consistent in their results. For example, implementing a districtwide policy for teacher evaluation does not guarantee that students in any given classroom will have a competent teacher. 

Unless reorganizing and restructuring strongly affect direct influences on learning, they offer little hope of substantial improvement Changing policies is unlikely to change practices in classrooms and homes, where much of learning actually takes place. Better alignment of remote policies and district practices and more direct intervention in the psychological determinants of leaned promise the most effective avenues of reform.

Twenty-Eight Categories of Influence on School Learning

Student Characteristics includes gender, academic history, and a variety of social, behavioral, motivational, cognitive, and affective characteristics. 

1. Metacognitive Processes
Comprehension monitoring (planning, monitoring effectiveness of and outcomes of actions; testing, revising, and evaluating strategies) 
2. Cognitive Processes
Level of specific academic knowledge in subject area instructed
3. Social and Behavioral Attributes
Positive, nondisruptive behavior
4. Motivational and Affective Attributes 
Attitude toward subject matter instructed
5. Psychomotor Skills 
Psychomotor skills specific to area
6. Student Demographics
Socioeconomic status

7. Classroom management
Group alerting (teacher uses questioning/recitation strategies that maintain active student participation)
8. Student and Teacher Social Interactions 
Student responds positively during interactions with teachers and other students 
9. Quantity of Instruction 
Time on task (amount of time students are actively engaged in learning) 
10. Classroom Climate Cohesiveness 
(class members are friends, share common interests and values, and emphasize cooperative goals) 
11. Student and Teacher Academic Interactions 
Frequent calls for extended, substantive oral and written response (not one-word answers) 
12. Classroom Assessment 
Use of assessment as a frequent, integral component of instruction 
13. Classroom Instruction 
Use of clear and organized direct instruction 
14. Classroom Implementation and Support 
Establishing efficient classroom routines and communicating rules and procedures

15. Home Environment and Parental Support 
Parental involvement in ensuring completion of homework 
16. Peer Group 
Level of peers' academic aspirations 
17. Community Influences 
Socioeconomic level of community 
18. Out-of-Class Time 
Student participation in clubs and extracurricular school activities

19. Curriculum Design 
Instructional materials employ advance organizers 
20. Program Demographics 
Size of instructional group (whole class, small group, one-on-one instruction) 
21. Curriculum and Instruction 
Alignment among goals, content, instruction, student assignments, and evaluation

22. School Culture
School wide emphasis on and recognition of academic achievement
23. Teacher/Administrator Decision Making
Principal actively concerned with instructional program
24. Parental Involvement Policy
Parental involvement in improvement and operation of instructional programs
25. School Demographies
Size of school
26. School Policies
Explicit school wide discipline policy

27. State-Level Policies
Teacher licensure requirements
28. District Demographics
School district size