PRESENCE 2001

Presence: Is Your Heart In It?
Cath Dillon, Edmund Keogh, Jonathan Freeman, and Jules Davidoff
Goldsmiths College, London, England

This paper describes the effects of display (monoscopic/stereoscopic video presentation and presence/absence of a screen surround) and content (rally-driving/boat-ride videos) manipulations on four measures: subjective presence, subjective mood, Skin Conductance (SC) and Heart-Rate (HR). While the subjective measures successfully discriminate between display and content manipulations, the results for the objective physiological measures are less clear. It appears that SC and HR are most useful for discriminating between contents rather than displays. The results are discussed in terms of implications for the measurement of presence.

Duration Estimation and Presence
Wijnand Ijsselsteijn, Ilse Bierhoff, and Yvonne Slangen-de Kort
Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

In this paper we report on a first attempt at investigating the relation between presence and duration estimation, and explore the possibility of using duration estimation as a corroborative measure of presence. Duration estimation refers to the human ability to indicate how much time has elapsed and has been shown to be influenced by factors such as interest or attention. These factors are also theorised to be important in establishing a sense of presence, thus suggesting a relation between duration estimation and presence. An experiment was performed that employed a wayfinding task in a desktop virtual environment, using different types of wayfinding aids. Presence was measured using a short questionnaire. After the experiment, participants were asked whether they thought they had completed the wayfinding tasks in a short time. In addition, after each task they were asked to estimate the elapsed time interval in mm:ss. Results showed a significant positive correlation between the subjectively judged speed of task completion and the sense of presence, indicating that higher presence is associated with shorter experienced duration. No significant correlation was found between duration estimation (in mm:ss) and presence. These results are interpreted in terms of the potential underlying mechanisms, and suggestions for improving the experimental design will be discussed.

Objective Measures of Presence in Virtual Environments
Michael Meehan, Brent Insko, Mary Whitton, and Fred Brooks
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA

The Presence Equation: An Investigation Into Cognitive Factors Which Underlie Presence Within Non-Immersive Virtual Environments
Corina Sas and G.M.P. O’Hare
University College Dublin, Ireland

The cognitive factors underlying the phenomenon of presence has received limited research attention, and to the best of our knowledge no experimental study has been carried out to investigate such. Psychological traits, which allow some of us to experience presence more than the others, can be more appropriately studied using non-immersive virtual reality systems. Within non-immersive virtual environments, the lack of high technological support enables users to experience presence differently, mainly due, not to the system characteristics, but to associated human factors. Within this paper we highlight the concept of presence, providing a definition and an associated operationalisation. We design and conduct an experiment to examine the influence and effects of certain cognitive factors upon presence. A series of tasks are performed involving both navigation and information retrieval in a multi-storey 3D virtual building. This work investigates the relationships between a set of four cognitive factors namely: empathy; imagination; absorption; cognitive style and their effect upon the associated users’ sense of presence. The results enable us to improve the presence equation, employing a deeper and more thorough approach to the psychology of presence.

Presence as Experience: Questionnaire Development to Assess Virtual Corpsing
Tim Marsh
University of York, York, England

Experiences and the activities that provide them are associated with the virtual places (context of use) where they were encountered. Conversely, we associate a virtual place - that we have visited - with experiences where they occurred and this will enforce the illusion of having been somewhere in another environment other than where the mediating system resides (e.g. home, lab). In short, experiences encountered in virtual places - spaces within 3D virtual environments - provide a sense of having been present somewhere else. Hence, finding ways to capture user experience may provide an alternative and indirect way to assess presence. This presentation describes the background work towards the development of a framework of potential experiences that may be induced in users of mediated environments. Using this framework, a questionnaire has been developed to allow users to articulate sensational, thrilling and empathic experience, evaluators to capture experience and designers to gauge/judge their designs for experience. Two studies were carried out to test the effectiveness of the questionnaire at capturing users' induced experience within two interactive mediated environments.

Conceptualizing, Differentiating and Measuring Copresence and Social Presence
Kristine Nowak
University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA

This article discusses the measurement and construct of presence, social presence and copresence. The importance of understanding what part of the construct an indicator is actually measuring increases as researchers continue to try to explicate the causes and influences of the dimensions of presence. All were highly and positively correlated, but confirmatory factor analysis revealed they were not unidimensional. Following the presentation of the data, this article suggests revised definitions for copresence and social presence and presents data indicating that presence is not one unidimensional construct, but instead is a collection of several correlated constructs, each taping in to a small part of the sense of presence. Implications for defining and measuring copresence, social presence and presence as transportation are discussed.

Operationalizing Mediated Presence: Initial Steps Toward A Measure of the Construct
Tracy Russo
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA

This paper reports on a research project designed to investigate and eventually to operationalize mediated presence, that is, the extent to which interactants in a virtual environment perceive other interactants in that environment as real, immediate or salient. Initial steps toward developing a prompt that consistently differentiates between high and low perceived presence are reported. In particular, manipulation checks on the prompt and open-ended explorations of the construct using a grounded theory approach are discussed. Other factors that subjects apparently integrate with presence or confound with presence also are identified. Directions for future research are elaborated.

A Taxonomy of Copresence: From Corporeal Copresence to Hypervirtual Telecopresence
Shanyang Zhao
Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

In this paper the concept of presence is extended to subsume copresence, which refers to the experience of being together with other people in real or virtual environments. The focus of the paper is human copresence in a real environment. Based on the cross-classification of the characteristics of proximity and corporeality, a six-category taxonomy of copresence is constructed: corporeal copresence, virtual copresence, telecopresence, virtual telecopresence, hypervirtual copresence, and hypervirtual telecopresence. "Virtuality" is used here to refer to the surrogate presence of human individuals rather than computer-simulated reality. While virtual human interaction can occur in conditions of real copresence, real human interaction can take place in conditions of virtual copresence. An enriched concept of presence, which includes both subjective and objective measures of corporeal and surrogate copresence of human individuals in either real or simulated environments, will further our understanding of the relationships among humans, between humans and nature, and between humans and human-made environments.

The Networked Minds Theory and Measure of Social Presence
Frank Biocca, Judee Burgoon, Chad Harms, Jenn Gregg, Matt Stoner, and Tony Vitrano
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Social Presence of Social Actors: Creating Social Presence with Machine-Generated Voices
Kwan Min Lee and Cliff Nass
Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA

We demonstrate, via two experiments (N = 72 and N = 80) done in e-commerce contexts, that social responses to technology influence feelings of social presence. Users are shown to feel stronger social presence when they hear a computer-synthesized voice that manifests a personality that: a) is similar to the user as compared to dissimilar to the user's, b) is consistent with the text's personality (Experiment 2), and c) is extroverted as compared to introverted.

The Influence of Virtual Bodies and Agency on Copresence, Social Presence and Physical Presence
Kristine Nowak, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Frank Biocca, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

The increased prevalence of the virtual body and artificial intelligences are both likely to influence the perception of who sent the message, as well as the message itself. Further, more anthropomorphic interfaces (whether in terms of intelligence or appearance) have led people to respond in increasingly social ways to computers (Koda, 1996a; Reeves & Nass, 1996; Turkle, 1995). This paper used a between subjects experimental design with two factors to explore the implications of agency and the appearance of the virtual body on copresence, social presence and physical presence. The first factor, level of anthropomorphism of virtual image had three levels, high, low and no virtual image. The second factor, anthropomorphism of the intelligent other, had two levels, whether the participants were told they were interacting with a human (avatar), or a bot (agent). The results showed that a virtual confederate (agent or avatar) represented by a high-anthropomorphic image or no image was perceived to be more social present and copresent in the interaction as compared to virtual confederate (agent or avatar) represented by a low-anthropomorphic virtual body. People interacting with a high anthropomorphic image felt more presence in the environment. There were no discernable differences between the perception of virtual confederates when participants were told they were interacting with an avatar as compared to those told they were interacting with an agent. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Mediated Virtual Collaboration
Ronald Rice, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Ann Majchrzak, Arvind Malhotra, Nelson King, and Sulin Ba, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA

The knowledge-sharing behavior of members of an inter-organizational virtual team using a collaborative technology was observed for 10 months as they developed an innovative new product. Four propositions from the literature on knowledge-sharing were tested. The first proposition, that the team would increase their use of the CT to share knowledge over time as they became familiar with it and developed stable social norms, was not supported; CT use decreased over time. The second proposition, that the CT will be more frequently used when the team is engaged in those tasks where collective understanding is required, was supported by the electronic log data of system usage. The third proposition, that when a particular type of content knowledge requires collective understanding, the CT is used to create shared artifacts about that knowledge, was supported; however, different ways to measure shared artifacts were identified leading to somewhat different results. The fourth proposition, that CT use for sharing content knowledge will be determined in part by the process norms of the team, was only partially supported, as the norms did not specify which content knowledge should be captured. These results suggest that our understanding of the use of CTs for knowledge-sharing can be enhanced by distinguishing between sharing different kinds of content knowledge from process norms for use; that sharing of content knowledge is not necessarily affected by time or task equivocality, but rather by the context-specific needs for creating a collective understanding about particular tasks at particular points in time; that norms of use are not specific to specific content knowledge; that knowledge-sharing involves the use of different features and norms for knowledge capture, knowledge categorization, and knowledge retrieval; and that features facilitating knowledge categorization and retrieval may be inadequate for a highly creative and unpredictable work process. Recommendations for future research and practice are offered.

Really Hear? The Effects Of Audio Quality On Presence
Jane Lessiter, Jonathan Freeman, and Jules Davidoff
Goldsmiths College, London, England

The extent of sensory information has been proposed as a determinant of presence (e.g., Sheridan, 1992). While a large proportion of presence research has focused on visual manipulations, research on manipulations of auditory characteristics is currently limited. In this paper the effects of several audio manipulations on the sense of presence and ratings of specific audio/visual dimensions were explored. A 5.1 ‘rally car’ audio mix was rated significantly more highly than either a mono or stereo audio mix on some presence measures and specific audio dimensions. A series of experiments was designed to investigate potential contributory factors. Overall, the increase in number of discrete audio channels from two to five did not significantly enhance presence or audio/visual quality ratings, with the exception of audio-related enjoyment. Overall, the inclusion of bass to a presentation, whether two channels or five, did significantly enhance presence and a number of audio/visual quality ratings. An overall increase in volume in the stereo condition could account for the observed bass-related enhancement for Sense of Physical Space and the audio/visual quality ratings. However, for ratings on Engagement, Ecological Validity and a general presence measure (SUS3), bass offered a unique contribution to the experience irrespective of the increased volume that it afforded.

Tele-immersion Portal: Towards an Ultimate Synthesis of Computer Graphics and Computer Vision Systems
Amela Sadagic, Advanced Network and Services, Armonk, New York, USA
Herman Towles, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
Loring Holden, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
Kostas Daniilidis, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
Bob Zeleznik, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA

We describe a novel approach for unifying computer graphics and computer vision systems, and our initial results in building and using a prototype system. This approach has three significant characteristics: unification of the real and virtual worlds for both input and output, tele-collaboration between remote participants, and interaction between heterogeneous stand-alone 3D graphics applications. The system is designed to run on the networks of the future, and it is capable of transmitting blends of dynamic computer graphics and computer vision data in real-time. In this text we concentrate on its visual part, in particular on synergy of computer graphics and computer vision systems as a new medium for collaboration and tele-presence. The preliminary steps of our research make us increasingly optimistic that in the future this technology will provide highly compelling, immersive environments for an increasing variety of tele-collaborative applications over high bandwidth networks.

The Meaning of the Distance: Internet2 Performance Workshop
Sarah Drury
Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

Tuning the Level of Presence (LOP)
Gerard J. Kim
POSTECH, Pohang, Kyungbuk, Korea

Experiential E-commerce: Relationship of Physical and Social Presence to Consumer Learning, Attitudes, and Decision-Making
Frank Biocca, Hairong Li, and Terry Daugherty
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Anne-Cécile Jeandrain
Universite Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium

There is no more doubt that telepresence is considered as an important media characteristic for the scientists as well as for practioners. Although more and more studies focus on telepresence antecedents, there is an evident lack of results on its effects (Lombard and Ditton, 1997). From a marketing point of view, enhancing telepresence could have interesting impacts like playfulness and enjoyment but could distract the user from the media purpose like purchase. The presentation aims at identifying one of the conditions under which telepresence should have positive impacts: intrinsic motivation. Indeed, if experiencing telepresence is an intrinsically motivated activity, the consumer should adopt an exploratory behavior, which generates itself substantial business benefits.

The concept of Virtual Reality is currently very popular and is applied in various fields such as, for instance, psychology, entertainment, medicine, teleoperation and business. This latter is concerned (among other things) in studying the advantage in designing immersive shops instead of more classical virtual catalogues. Potential benefits of individual's immersion are multiple but one is particularly interesting : persuasion. In this perspective, the presentation aims at clarifying theoretically three possible explanations ("central route" effect, "confidence" effect and "source-monitoring error" effect) about immersive Virtual Reality impact on persuasion.

Understanding the Role of Mapping in Web Sites
James Coyle and Reetika Gupta
Baruch College, CUNY, New York, USA

Commercial web sites have been described as "technologically simple," "thoughtful but decidedly noninteractive," and seeming to "avoid violating fundamental design rules through default, in that they lack sophistication" (Bucy et al, 1998). The experiment described here explores a small piece of the puzzle presented by the Internet's formal features. We investigate how the design tool mapping may affect, positively or negatively, consumer's perceived level of telepresence, their attitudes towards web sites, and their intentions to return and/or purchase products from the site. Understanding the role of mapping in web sites is especially important because mapping can help create a rich environment, yet it is not as demanding of bandwidth to the degree that other rich media tools like audio and video are. In addition, we examine how the quality of mapping strategies may interact with users' goals to influence the consumer’s reactions to the website.

Effects of Presence on Spatial Perception in Virtual Environments
Jan Hofmann
DaimlerChrysler, Berlin, Germany

Virtual Environments As A Research Tool For Environmental Psychology: A Study Of Comparability Of Virtual And Real Environments
Yvonne Slangen, Yvon Schuurmans, Jolien Kooijman and Wijnand Ijsselsteijn
Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Virtual environments have the potential to become important new research tools in environment behaviour research. The present study is an exploration of the comparability of research findings in real and virtual environments. 101 participants explored an identical space, either in reality or in a computer-simulated environment. Additionally, the presence of plants in the space was manipulated, resulting in a 2 (Environment) x 2 (Plants) between Ss design. Employing a broad set of measurements we found mixed results. Performances on size estimations and a cognitive mapping task were significantly lower in the virtual environment. Factor analyses of bipolar adjectives indicated that although four dimensions were similar for both environments, a fifth dimension of environmental assessment - termed arousal - was absent in the virtual environment. In addition, we found significant differences on the scores of four of the scales. However, no significant interactions appeared between Environment and Plants. Experience of and behaviour in virtual environments has similarities to that in real environments, but important differences as well.

Cyclopean Vision, Size Estimation and Presence in Orthostereoscopic Images
Bernard Harper
University of Liverpool, England

"The camera never lies" is a phrase that almost everyone has heard and it has been found to have been literally translated into many languages. However, experienced photographers know that the camera always distorts to some degree, especially when imaging people. Distortions are regularly mentioned anecdotally (Gunby, 2000; Kelly, 1998; Warner, 1995) but, until the present study, it appears that no one has examined the fattening and slimming effects of photography in a systematic way. The four experiments reported use changes in stereoscopic disparities and lens angle of view to examine the effects of Body Image Distortion in photography. The experience of direct viewing of a scene or object is fundamental to presence research. But without careful control of image capture and presentation parameters, predictable perceptual distortions can occur.

A Model Of The Psychology Of Virtual Learning
Melissa Selverian, Ha Sung Hwang, and Cheyenne Mason
Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA

This research presentation explores the technology, motivations, and responses identified in a body of research on academic and medical Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) in order to suggest the potential value of integrating Presence characteristics with traditional learning frameworks in the development of a VLE model. Examples of Presence in learning environments are presented, and an emerging pattern of instructor and learner Presence objectives and academic and personal success and satisfaction is identified. Particular attention is paid to the overemphasis of research on the technology-response effect and the paucity of research on the mediating motivational factors. The concern is raised that, while the field of instructional design demands a consistency between the objectives and the technology form and application, an inspection of this criterion in terms of both curricular and perceptual standards is lacking from the studies evaluated. Emerging virtual learning models and deficiencies in their focus are explored, and areas of future research are proposed.

Does 'Presence' Impact On Student Learning? The Effects Of Audio On Students' Conceptual Learning
Anne Jelfs and Denise Whitelock
IET Open University, Miton Keynes, England

Passive Haptics Increases Training Effectiveness in Virtual Environments
Brent E. Insko, Michael J. Meehan, Mary C. Whitton, and Frederick P. Brooks, Jr.
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA

My presentation will describe two user studies investigating the effects of augmenting passive physical objects in virtual environments. One study examined the effect on presence of augmenting a virtual ledge with a 1.5-inch physical ledge. Significantlyu higher presence was found in the augmented VE sessions. The second study investigated the effects on training of augmenting a maze-like environment with styrofoam walls and objects. Participants were trained in the environment either with or without the styrofoam walls in the virtual environment, then tested by performing the same navigation while blindfolded in a real environment. Those trained with the augmentation made significantly fewer collisions and took significantly less time than those trained without the augmentation.

Interfaces for Navigation and Familiarity Training
Michael Eckmann, Yu Li, Terry Boult, and G. Drew Kessler

Importance of Identification in Shaping Responses to Messages
Mike Basil
University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada

How can "low tech" products such as books sometimes lead to a higher sense of presence than "high-tech" products? This presentation reviews six studies that demonstrate a critical factor determining a sense of presence is a person's parasocial identification with the virtual other. These studies tested parasocial identification as a power force in shaping responses to media. The research was done with three different celebrities -- Magic Johnson, Princess Diana and Mark McGwire -- as well as two studies that used real people. There two general theoretical conclusions: Parasocial identification does predict media effects, and further, that the level of identification mediateseffects and that these effects hinge on identification. These findings support the theory of parasocial identification in determining the effectiveness of a message, and people's involvement with a situation. This sense of presence can be a critical factor in shaping people's emotional responses to presence situations. That is, presence simulations are likely to be more involving, more powerful, and more real through the use of a protagonist that instills a sense of identification. With regard to the application to commercial products in presence contexts the main question is: How can a sense of parasocial identification best be created? With regard to possible negative consequences the critical question becomes: Will people be more likely to imitate the behaviors of dramatic and gaming characters when they instill a sense of parasocial identification?

Virtual Team Interactions in Networked Multimedia Games - Case: "Counter-Strike" - Multi-player 3D Action Game
Tony Manninen

This presentation describes the findings of the ethnographical research concentrating on multi-player games. The goal is to study the interaction in these networked virtual environments in order to find out how the player teams interact and whether the current games provide enough possibilities for team interaction. The focus is in acquiring general understanding of team interactions in the context of the research. The preliminary analysis indicates that the basic support for team interaction in action games is adequate. However, the players tend to communicate outside the game, thus indicating that there is a need for additional interaction support.

Presence Revisited: Imagination, Competence, and Activity in Text-Based Virtual Worlds
David Jacobson

Media Psychology Is Not Yet There: Introducing Theories On The Reception Of Entertaining Media To The Presence Debate
Christoph Klimmt and Peter Vorderer
Hannover University of Music and Drama, Hannover, Germany

The Illusion Of Being Present - Use Of The Tent To Create Immersive Experiences And Its Effect On Emotions
John and Eva Waterworth, Interactive Institute, Tools for Creativity Studio, Umea, Sweden
Rita Lauria, Media and Interface Design Lab, USA

Virtual and mixed reality environments can produce vivid experiences and generate powerful emotions, in essence, affective or "perceptually-seductive" communication (PSC). Our research is concerned with how this potential can be utilized in the design of creative spaces and environments to support human creativity and reflection. Within the overall aim of supporting creativity, we are experimenting with the factors that drive the nature of subjective experiences within virtual and mixed reality environments. Our work is based on three hypothesised dimensions of experience: locus, focus, and sensus, where focus describes a continuum from intense presence to absorbed absence of mind. Our research method includes the creation of artistic productions that combine theoretical ideas with technological innovation to elicit affective responses in those who experience them. We describe the creation of the Interactive Tent, and of a production for it – The Illusion of Being. The Tent provides a novel immersive environment for experimenting with factors affecting presence and other aspects of PSC. The Illusion exemplifies our theoretical views in a vivid interactive experience that is unique for each participant. In the associated demonstration, participants will experience (at least some semblance of) the illusion of being present.

The Tent
John and Eva Waterworth, Interactive Institute, Tools for Creativity Studio, Umea, Sweden
Rita Lauria, Media and Interface Design Lab, USA

The Interactive Tent is a test-bed for experimenting with the nature and possibilities of experience in virtual environments. The tent has a simple and inexpensive material structure - just like a normal tent. Video images are projected onto the outside of the tent and viewed from inside as an immersive visual display. There is also a 3D sound system and an inlet for smells. The tent can detect behaviour by the user, such as restless shifting of position, or movements of the chest in breathing, or of the arms like the waving of a flashlight to control the representations of information displayed on the tent walls. In its current implementation, we use pressure and motion sensors to detect head position and degree of body movement. We also manipulate the nature of displays to stimulate presence or absence (the focus dimension) and vary the degree of realism, effectively moving the occupant along the real-virtual (locus) dimension. In "The Illusion of Being" we realise four streams of conceptualized environmental/experiential difference, inviting participants to sample through these distinctions. These four streams of environmental/experiential difference are designed to instantiate alternative ways of being present. Each participant’s experience is unique.

Electronic Presence and Vision Science: Demonstration of an
Unconventional Full-motion Electronic Imaging System and a Discussion of Neurological Precepts for Advanced Devices
Richard Solomon, Program On Vision Science & Advanced Networking, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
Eric Rosenthal, Media Research Lab, New York University, USA

Immersive Remote Reality Using Omnidirectional Video
Michael Eckmann, Yu Li, Terry Boult, and G. Drew Kessler